Air Pollution Management in Two Colombian Cities: Case Study
| Autor | Uribe Botero Eduardo |
| Páginas | 1-50 |
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Air Pollution Management in Two
Colombian Cities:
Case Study
Eduardo Uribe Botero*
Abstract
This document is a case study that focuses on the air pollution problems of
Bogotá and Medellín. These are the largest; most populated and
industrialized cities of Colombia. The document presents a brief description
of the evolution of relevant institutional aspects. It describes the pollution
problems of these cities, their sources, their effects on health and the
measures to control and to prevent them. Following the framework of the
WDR 20031, this document analyzes how society becomes aware of air
pollution problems and the mechanisms that have generated the decision to
undertake air pollution control strategies. It also discusses the mechanisms
which have been in place to balance legitimate, competing social interests,
and the means by which the adopted solutions are executed. Finally, the
document presents a series of lessons and recommendations.
Key words: Air Pollution, Regulation, Institutions, Colombia.
JEL classification: N5, O13, Q20.
*Profesor e Investigador del CEDE-Facultad de Economía Universidad de los Andes.
1World Development Report (2003) - Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World:
Transforming Institutions, Growth, and Quality of Life. The World Bank. Washington.
ISSN 1900-7760
(Edición Electrónica)
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Air Pollution Management
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Case Study
Eduardo Uribe Botero
Resumen
Este documento es un estudio de caso sobre los problemas de contamina-
ción del aire en Bogotá y Medellín, las dos ciudades más pobladas e
industrializadas de Colombia. El documento presenta una breve descrip-
ción de los asuntos institucionales más relevantes; describe los problemas
de contaminación en esas ciudades, sus fuentes, sus efectos sobre la salud,
y las medidas que se han tomado para controlarlos. Siguiendo la metodo-
logía analítica del Informe sobre el Desarrollo Mundial del Banco Mun-
dial2 del año 2003, en este documento se analizan los mecanismos a través
de los cuales la sociedad se hizo conciente de los problemas de contami-
nación del aire; los mecanismos por medio de los cuales se generó deman-
da social para darles solución; los mecanismos existentes para balancear
intereses legítimos y en conflicto y los mecanismos mediante los cuales las
soluciones adoptadas fueron implementadas. Finalmente, el documento
incluye una serie de lecciones y recomendaciones.
Palabras clave: polución aérea, regulación, instituciones, Colombia.
Clasificación JEL: N5, O13, Q20.
I. Description of the Case
A. Introduction to the Cities
1. Bogotá
Bogotá is located in an Andean plateau at an altitude of 2.560 m above sea
level. Its average annual temperature is 14.8oC, with daily variations that
range between 1 and 26 oC.3. Monthly average temperatures vary less
than 1 oC. The average annual precipitation in the city is about 672 mm and
average annual wind speed is 1.5 m/s. Thermal inversions occur during the
months of January, February and June, and between August and December4.
Those are the drier and warmer months of the year.
2World Development Report (2003) - Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World:
Transforming Institutions, Growth, and Quality of Life. The World Bank. Washington.
3Informe anual de la red de monitoreo de calidad del aire de Bogotá (2002). DAMA. Bogotá.
4GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). “Contaminación atmosférica”.
E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. La contaminación industrial en Colombia. DNP. PNUD. Bogotá.
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Bogotá is the capital city of Colombia and its largest economic center5. This
city and the neighboring municipality of Soacha have 2.334 industrial
establishments6. Between 1980 and 2000, this city contributed with 22% of
the Gross National Product7 on the average, and produced 24.6% of the
national industrial output. The value of its industrial production was US $ 5.2
billion. Bogotá has a population of 6´789.1228 inhabitants and an annual growth
rate of 2.08%9. It houses close to 15% of Colombia’s national population.
In 1999, Bogotá had 995.788 vehicles10. More recent information is not
available. It is estimated that between 1998 and 2002 the number of cars in
the city grew by 200.00011. About 88% of the vehicles are private, 5.6% are
taxis, 3% are motorcycles and 2.3% are public buses12. Nineteen percent of
the passengers are transported in 80% of the vehicles, mostly private.
Gasoline represents seventy five percent and Diesel 25%13 of the energy
consumed by the transportation sector in Colombia. While automobiles,
campers, light trucks and small buses use gasoline, public buses use diesel14.
Although the use of natural gas has increased, its participation is still not
significant15.
5De Bogotá a la región: apuntes para un modelo de desarrollo regional (2003). Contraloría
de Bogotá, D. C.
6 www.dane.gov.co.
7Encuesta anual manufacturera (2000). DANE. Bogotá.
8Proyecciones departamentales de población por sexo y edad, 1990-2015 (2003). DANE.
Bogotá.
9Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadísticas-DANE. www.dane.gov.co.
10 Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Departamento Técnico-Administrativo del
Medio Ambiente. Bogotá.
11 Air Monitoring Network of Bogota. Annual Report (2002). DAMA. Bogotá.
12 Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
13 Análisis de conveniencia del uso del gas natural comprimido vehicular en Colombia
(2002). Colombiana de Hidrocarburos S. A. Informe de consultoría. Bogotá.
14 ONURSAL, B. and GAUTAM (1997). Contaminación atmosférica por vehículos auto-
motores. Experiencias en siete centros urbanos de América Latina. Banco Mundial. Wash-
ington.
15 Análisis de conveniencia del uso del gas natural comprimido vehicular en Colombia
(2002). Cit.
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Air Pollution Management
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According to a survey conducted in 1989 the number of fixed sources of
pollution in Bogotá was 1.30016. The Environmental Department of Bogo-
tá – Departamento del Medio Ambiente de Bogotá (DAMA) reported
that number of fixed sources to be 2.372 in 199917. More recent information
is not available. According to that information, fixed sources of air pollution
grew 182% between 1989 and 1999. The industrial areas of Bogotá are
mainly located to the south and southwest of the city.
Yearly emissions by fixed sources of air pollution in Bogotá amount to
about 2.198 tons of dust, 6.503 tons of SOx and 1.687 tons of NOx18.
Industrial kilns and furnaces represent seventy five percent of fixed sources
of air pollution. The technological deficiencies of Small and Medium In-
dustrial Enterprises19 have been associated with high levels of industrial
pollution in Bogotá20. The main sources of energy for the manufacturing
industry of Bogotá are diesel (44.9%), crude oil (Crudo de Castilla)
(24.7%), and coal (7.5%)21.
2. Medellín
The city of Medellín is located in the Aburrá Valley at an altitude of 1460
meters above sea level. The Aburrá Valley is located in an inter-Andean
depression surrounded by mountains that rise 3000 meters above sea level22.
Its average annual temperature is 20 oC. Thermal inversions occur during
25 to 35% of the days of the year23.
16 GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). Op. cit.
17 Informe de gestión gmbiental en el Distrito Capital. Enero 1998-diciembre 2000. (2000-
2001). Departamento Administrativo del Medio Ambiente, DAMA. Bogotá.
18 Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
19 Firms which have between 11 and 200 employees and a total patrimony between 501 y
15.000 minimum monthly wages (Law 50 of 2000).
20 CRUZ, G. y URIBE, E. (2002). El efecto del regulador y de la comunidad sobre el
desempeño ambiental de la industria en Bogotá. CEDE. Universidad de los Andes. Bogotá.
21 Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
22 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá. Medellín.
23 GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
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Located next to Medellín are nine other municipalities in the Aburrá Valley.
These are: the municipalities of Barbosa, Bello, Caldas, Copacabana, En-
vigado, Girardota, Itagui, La Estrella, and Sabaneta24. Medellín and these
nine municipalities integrate the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley.
The population of Medellín is 2’026.78925. This corresponds to 65% of
the total population of the Aburrá Valley26. It is expected that by year 2020
Medellín will have one million additional inhabitants27.
The total area of the Aburrá Valley is 812 K2. Forty one percent of this
territory is occupied by the urban areas of Medellín and the additional nine
municipalities which integrate the Metropolitan Area.
There are 1412 industrial establishments relevant for air pollution control in
Medellín and in the 10 municipalities of the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá
Valley28. The main sources of industrial pollution in the region are paper,
cement, brisk and steel29. The sources of energy for the industrial sector of
the Aburrá Valley are hydroelectric energy (16.6%), diesel (12.2%), coal
(49.2%) and crude oil (22.1%)30.In 2000, the value of its industrial
production amounted to US $ 3.6 billion which corresponds to nearly 16%
of the country’s total production31.
In 2002 there were 387.000 mobile sources of air pollution in the region32.
Their growth rate is 10% per year33. The average age of public transpiration
24 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
25 Ibid.
26 2414860 million people.
27 Proyecto metrópoli 2002-2020. (2002). Plan Integral de Desarrollo Metropolitano del
Valle de Aburrá. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá. Medellín.
28 www.dane.gov.co.
29 GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
30 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
31 www.dane.gov.co.
32 HOYOS, O. (2002). Informe de gestión. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá. Medellín.
33 Proyecto Metrópoli 2002-2020 (2002). Cit.
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vehicles is 16.7 years. Total emissions by mobile sources amount to 73.876
tons of pollutants per year34.
B. Institutional Aspects
Before 1993, environmental institutions in Colombia were mainly concentrated
in rural areas, national parks and forests35. Until 1993 there were several
national and regional institutions with responsibilities for environmental con-
trol, regulation policy and management. The National Institute of Natural
Resources (INDERENA), an agency of the Ministry of Agriculture, was
primarily responsible for the administration and management of protected
areas. The National Planning Department coordinated the activities of 18
Regional Autonomous Corporations. These Corporations acted as
environmental authorities at the regional and local level. None of these
institutions had responsibilities related to air pollution control.
The Code of Natural Resources (Decree 2811 of 1974) was elaborated
under the coordination of Mr. Julio Carrizosa, who was then Director of
INDERENA36, with the “…help of a technical team and members of the
academia”37. There is no reference to or evidence of public consultation in
the processes. This Code did not include specific regulations for air pollution
control. However, it indicated that the national government should approve
regulations to prevent air pollution38. Consequently, Law 02 of 1979, also
known as the Sanitary Code, defined the general criteria for future
developments of regulations related to the management and control of
wastes, effluents and emissions that could affect human health. This Code
34 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
35 SÁNCHEZ, E. y URIBE, E. (1994). La contaminación industrial en Colombia. DNP.
PNUD. Bogotá.
36 Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales y del Medio Ambiente. National Institute of
Environmental and Natural Resources.
37 Las voces del SINA (2002). Ministerio del Medio Ambiente.
38 Article 75 of the Code of Natural Resources.
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was prepared by the “Unit of Environmental Health”39 of the Ministry of
Health in coordination with INDERENA40, ANDI41 and ACODAL42.
Following the guidelines of the Sanitary Code, the Ministry of Health
approved Decree 2 of 1982 which defined national air ambient standards
for five air pollutants. The process for the definition of those standards was
also coordinated by the Ministry of Health with INDERENA, ANDI and
ACODAL. As in the case of the Sanitary Code, no form of public
consultation was undertaken. This could be attributed to the fact that air
pollution was not considered a priority by the general public, information
relative to its effects on human health were largely unknown to the general
public, and mechanisms for public participation were very limited43.
The enforcement of the standards of Decree 02 of 1982 was delegated to
the health authorities and not to the environmental authorities. This could
be attributed to the fact that the Sanitary Code included other regulations
related to the protection of human health.
Table one presents the maximum ambient standards approved by the
Ministry of Health. The analytical bases for the definition of these standards
could not be traced.
Table 1. National air Ambient Standards Approved by Decree 2 of 1982.
Pollutant44 Unit Standard
Daily* Annual ** 8 hours 1 hour
TSP µg /m3400 100 - -
SO2µg /m3400 100 - -
CO µg /m3- - 15 50
NOxµg /m3100 - - -
O3µg /m3- - - 170
*sample collected during one day; **geometric average of all daily samples continuously
collected during 12 months.
39 Under the direction of Mr. Germán Gómez. He was also DAMA’s Director during 1994.
40 Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales y del Medio Ambiente. Cit.
41 National Association of Industries.
42 National Association of Sanitary Engineers.
43 Interview with Mr. Julio Carrisoza. INDERENA’s Director from 1973 to 1978. July
2004. Bogotá.
44 Total Suspended Particles (TSP); Sulfur Dioxides (SO2); Carbon Monoxide (CO); Nitro-
gen Oxides (NOx); Ozone (O3).
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Case Study
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Consequently, in accordance to the Sanitary Code and to Decree 02 of
1982 national and local health authorities became responsible for air pollution
control. In Bogotá, the Department of Transportation was also responsible
for controlling air pollution emissions generated by vehicles45. The Ministry
of Health and the City’s Department of Health also had the mandate to
control pollution emissions. However, there is no reference to a coordinated
air pollution control program with strategies aimed at improving air quality.
During this time, the roles and jurisdictions of different agencies with
environmental responsibilities in urban settings were not clearly defined or
limited46. Between 1982 and 1993 the human and financial resources
dedicated to air pollution control were scarce47.
Before 1991, news related to the environment in the mass media was scarce
and referred mainly to global environmental issues, such as ozone depletion
and climate change48. Technical information relative to the environmental
quality of rural and urban areas of the country only circulated in limited
circles within the national government and academia. By the late eighties,
most environmental NGO’s concentrated in rural issues. However, during
those years FUNDEPÚBLICO49 (Fundación para la Defensa del Inte-
rés Publico; Foundation for the Defense of the Public Interest) begun to
use legal actions to solve air pollution problems50.
Between 1991 and 1993, the Department of National Planning developed the
environmental component of the Industrial Restructuring Project financed by
the World Bank. As a part of that effort, the information gathered by the air
monitoring stations since 1967 was analyzed. Although the information was
45 GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe.
Op. cit.
46 MONCAYO, V. M. y SÁNCHEZ, E. (1994). “Aspectos jurídicos de la contaminación
industrial”. En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
47 SÁNCHEZ, E. y VARGAS, C. (1994). “Estructura institucional y financiera del control
de la contaminación y oferta analítica”. En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
48 Comunicación y medio ambiente. Elementos para la definición de estrategias informativas
en temas ambientales (1993). INDERENA, PNUD.
49 Created by Mr. Germán Sarmiento; a lawyer and environmental activists.
50 SÁNCHEZ, E. y MEDINA, G. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
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fragmented and incomplete, it was useful to detect the presence of air pollution
problems in the main Colombian cities, including Bogotá and Medellín; especially
with relation to particulate matter. The results were published in 199451.
After a widely democratic process, Colombia’s environmental regulations and
institutions were restructured by Law 99 of 199352. This Law assigned the
Ministry of the Environment responsibilities related to the approval of national
environmental regulations and air pollution control policies. It also created new
urban environmental authorities in cities with populations greater than one million
inhabitants53. The responsibility for air pollution monitoring and definition of
local air pollution policies and regulations was transferred from several sectoral
institutions (such as Health and Transport) to these new urban environmental
authorities, and in the case of smaller municipalities to the CARs. They are also
responsible and for the enforcement of air pollution regulations to fixed sources.
Local transportation authorities enforce air emission standards to mobile sources.
In 1995, the Environment Department of Bogotá (Departamento Admi-
nistrativo del Medio Ambiente de Bogotá, DAMA) was assigned
responsibilities in the areas of air pollution control, regulation and policy in
Bogotá54. In 2001 the city of Bogotá adopted local air ambient standards55
which are stricter than those approved by the national government in Decree
02 of 1982. These stricter standards were approved based on a combination
of reasons. “The information provided by the air monitoring network
indicated that in some areas of the city the levels of PM10 and TSP were
higher than the national standards, and there was new international
information related to the effects of smaller particles on human health. In
addition, the National ambient standards approved in 1982 were incomplete
and lower than those recommended by the World Health Organization”56.
51 GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
52 RODRÍGUEZ, M. (1998). La reforma ambiental en Colombia: anotaciones para la
historia de la gestión pública ambiental. Fundación FES. Bogotá.
53 Article 66, law 99 of 1993.
54 Ibid.
55 Resolución 391 of 2001 by DAMA.
56 Interview with Mr. Manuel Felipe Olivera. Director of DAMA form 1998 to 2001. July
2004. Bogotá.
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The standards recommend by this organization were the main reference for
the new regulations approved by DAMA. Table two presents the new air
ambient standards approved by DAMA in 2001 for Bogotá.
Table 2. Local Air Ambient Standards for Bogotá Approved by Reso-
lución 391 of 2001.
Pollutant57 Unit Standard
Daily* Annual ** 8 hours 1 hour
TSP µg /m3340 95 - -
PM10 µg /m3170 65 - -
SO2ppb 141 3 4 - -
CO ppm - - 11 39
NO2ppb 121 52 - 168
O3ppb 141 - 65 83
*sample collected during one day; **geometric average of all daily samples continuously
collected during 12 months.
On the other hand, the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley was created
in 1980, as a public institution responsible for planning and coordinating
the development of the municipalities of the Aburrá Valley; including the
city of Medellín. In addition to its functions related to regional planning and
to the coordination of regional policies, the Metropolitan Area also acts as
an environmental control agency since 199458. That year, the Environmental
Unit of the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley was created59.
C. The Monitoring Stations and their Data
This section presents, for each city, a brief history of their air monitoring
programs. It also presents the trends of air pollution with time. The
differences in the level of information and analysis between the two cities
relate to the unequal development of their monitoring efforts, and to the
availability of information.
57 Total Suspended Particles (TSP); Particles Smaller that 10 microns (PM10); Sulfur Diox-
ides (SO2); Carbon Monoxide (CO); Nitrogen Oxides (NOx); Ozone (O3).
58 www.metropol.gov.co.
59 Metropolitan Decree no. 011 of 1994.
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1. Bogotá
Air monitoring in Bogotá began in 196760, 15 years before air regulations
were approved and air pollution control responsibilities were assigned by
Decree 02 of 1982. That year, six monitoring stations were installed by the
Ministry of Health and the Pan-American Health Organization. This network
operated between 1967 and 1974. The installation and operation of this
network was promoted by the Pan- American Health Organization. It did
not result from a local interest in air pollution control61. At the time, there
was no evidence of the health effects of air pollution in Colombia.
In 1983 after the approval of the air standards of Decree 02 of 1982, the
city’s Department of Health installed and operated network of 12 air
monitoring stations. They operated until 1989. Between 1990 and 1991 the
Japanese Cooperation agency, JICA, financed the installation and operation
of 5 more monitoring stations. As in the case of the air monitoring stations
installed in 1967 by the Pan American Health Organization, the stations
installed by the Japanese Cooperation Agency where largely the result of the
donor’s interest. The duration and usefulness of the three networks installed
before 1991 was limited by the institutional, technical and financial deficiencies
of the local and national agencies responsible for their operation62. None of
those network stations operated after 1991. Despite the existence of those
stations, there is no reference of an air pollution control program that could
use the data from those stations, as an input for the design and adjustment of
air pollution control strategies before 1991.
Between 1967 and 1974, the network of stations installed by the Pan-
American Health Organization and administered by Ministry of Health
presented readings which detected high levels of Total Suspended Particles
(TSP) and of Sulfur Dioxides (SO2)63. At that time, the country had not
adopted ambient standards.
60 SÁNCHEZ, E. y HERRERA, C. (1994). “El estado del ambiente en Colombia”. En: E.
Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
61 Interview with Mr. Julio Carrisoza INDERENA’s Director from 1973 to 1978. July 2004.
Bogotá.
62 Sistema de información ambiental de Colombia: conceptos, definiciones e instrumentos de
la información imbiental de Colombia (2002). IDEAM. Bogotá.
63 SÁNCHEZ, E. y HERRERA, C. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
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The two networks of stations operated by the Department of Health between
1983 and 1989 and by JICA between 1990 and 1991 detected average
annual concentration of Total Suspended Particles (TSP) with concentrations
levels higher than the national ambient standards64 defined by Decree 02
of 198265. JICA reported that the ambient concentration of PM10 was
associated with the use of Diesel by the transport sector66. The analytical
bases for this conclusion are not known. In some places and during sporadic
events, the levels of Ozone (O3), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and Carbon
Monoxide (CO) were also above ambient standards. The annual average
concentrations of SO2 were lower than the national standards67.
Between 1991 and 1997 there was no air monitoring in Bogotá. In 1997,
DAMA installed a new network with 12 air monitoring stations. This new
network and its stations were designed and selected by an international
consortium contracted by DAMA, following an open international bidding
process. Most of the parameters selected were those of Decree 02 of
1982 (TSP, SO2, CO, NOx, and O3). Additionally, PM10, and PM2.5 were
also included. This was based on international evidence that related these
pollutants with ARI, as well as the high levels of TSP detected from the
previously existing stations. The network monitored PM2.5 until 1999, when
the equipment necessary to measure this parameter was damaged. Map
one shows the location of the stations.
Table three presents the pollutants measured at the air monitoring stations
of Bogotá68.
Consistent with previous information, the monitoring network installed by
DAMA in 1997 shows that particulate matter is an important pollutant in
Bogotá. Figure one presents the arithmetic average annual concentrations
of PM10 in Bogotá form 1998 to 2002.
However, air pollution levels vary widely across the city. Figure two presents
the arithmetic average annual concentration of PM10 in several monitoring
stations during 2002. The highest values correspond to industrial areas.
64 100 µg/m3.
65 GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
66 ONURSAL, B. and GAUTAM (1997). Op. cit.
67 100 µg/m3.
68 Air Monitoring Network of Bogotá (2000). Annual Report. DAMA. Bogotá.
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Map. 1. The Location of the Air Monitoring Station in Bogotá.
Table 3. Pollutants Measured at the Air Monitoring Stations of Bogotá.
Station Pollutant
SO2NOxCO O3CH4PM10 TSP
Universidad del Bosque XX X X
Ministry of the X X X X X X
Environment
Sony Music X X X X X
Carrefour XX XX X
Cazuca XX XX X X
Escuela de Ingeniería XXXX
Central de Mescalas XXX
Universidad Santo XX X X
Tomás
Universidad Corpas XX XX X X
Cade de Energía XX X X
Merck XX XX X X
Fontibón XX XX X X
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Figure 1. Average Annual Concentration of PM10 in Bogotá from
1998 to 2002.
Figure 2. Average Annual Concentration of PM10 at several air stations in
Bogotá; 2002.
During 2002, the average daily concentrations of TSP were above the local
standard on 23 occasions in one of the 14 monitoring stations: in the Cazuca
station (figure 3). In this station, average daily concentrations of TSP were
above 50% of the local standard in 27% of the cases. The Cazuca Station is
located in the economically poorer areas of the city; mining and manufacturing
industries are frequent. Figure two presents the average annual concentrations
of TSP at the Cazuca monitoring station. As the figure shows, at this site the
average annual concentrations of TSP more than triple the local standard. It
is interesting to notice that seasonal variations in the air concentrations of
suspended particles have not been detected69.
69 MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). “Análisis de intervención: efectividad de las políticas para reducción
de la contaminación por fuentes móviles en Bogotá”. Master’s Thesis. Facultad de
Economía. Universidad de los Andes. Bogotá.
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Figure 3. Average Annual Concentration of TSP at the Cazuca Monitoring
Station from 2000 to 2002.
70 Air Monitoring Network of Bogotá (2002). Cit.
Figures four and five present the arithmetic annual average concentrations
of NO2 and SO2 from 1998 to 2002 in Bogotá70, across all the monitoring
stations. Since 1998, the annual average concentrations of NO2 in Bogotá
have remained between 14 and 16 ppb; that is less than 30% of the local
standard. Since 1998, average annual concentrations of SO2 have remained
between 11 and 15 ppb, with an increasing trend. However these
concentrations are less than 50% of the local standard.
Figure 4. Average Annual Concentration of NO2 in Bogotá from
1998 to 2002.
Since 1998, maximum hourly concentrations of CO are generally under
50% of the local standard. In 2002 the concentrations of O3 were higher
than the standard in 0.72% of the one hour readings. Based on these
1616
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Air Pollution Management
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71 Interview with Mr. Carlos Mario Tamayo. Director of Environmental Quality at DAMA.
December 2003. Bogotá.
72 SÁNCHEZ, E. y HERRERA, C. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
73 Interview with Mr. Julio Carrisoza Inderena’s Director from 1973 to 1978. July 2004.
Bogotá.
74 GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
75 Ibid.
observations DAMA has determined that the control of TSP and of PM10
should be a priority for the city, that the increases in O3 should be reversed,
and that present levels of CO, NO2 SO2 should be maintained low71.
Figure 5. Average Annual Concentration of SO2 in Bogotá from 1998 to 2002.
2. Medellín
Air monitoring in Medellín began in 196772. That year, four monitoring stations
were installed by the Ministry of Health and the Pan-American Health
Organization. They operated until 1974. As in the case of Bogotá, the installation
and operation of this network was promoted by the Pan- American Health
Organization. It did not result from a local interest in air pollution control73. As
in the case of Bogotá, those stations detected high levels of TSP74.
In 1983 after the approval of Decree 02 of 1982 which, as indicated in section
2.1 included air emission standards, the Department of Health operated seven
stations. In 1983, these stations detected average annual concentrations of
SO2 in Medellín of 22.7 µg/m3. Between 1985 and 1989 average annual SO2
concentrations were 35 µg/m3 75. These concentrations were below the
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76 Ibid.
77 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
78 They are located at: the Politécnico, the Universidad de Antioquía, the Universidad de
Medellín, the Universidad Nacional, the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, down town
Medellín and in EEPPMM.
79 They are located at Barbosa, Bello, Corantioquia, Envigado, La Estrella, Girardota (Liceo
and COMFAMA), Guayabal, Itagüí and Sabaneta.
80 HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
81 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
82 www.metropol.gov.co.
83 HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
84 Ibid.
standards of decree 2 of 1982 (table 1). By 1992 there were four stations in
operation; their operating conditions were deficient76. As in the case of Bogotá,
the stations installed in 1967 by the Pan-American Health Organization and by
the city’s Department of Health in 1982 were not part of air pollution control
programs that could use the data form those stations as inputs for the design
and adjustment of air pollution control strategies.
Presently there is a network of 18 stations if the Aburrá Valley77. Ten of
them are located in the city of Medellín78, and 8 in the other municipalities
of the Aburrá Valley79. This network has the capacity to read TSP, PM10,
SO2, NOx, CO, and O3. The functioning of the monitoring station has been
interrupted in several occasions due to “legal problems” and difficulties
related to the calibration of the equipment80. Consequently, there are frequent
information voids.
Readings during the years 2001, 2002 and 2003 indicate that the average
annual concentrations of heavy metals, NOx, SO2 and CO, do not pose
health risks in Medellín or the municipalities of the Metropolitan Area of the
Aburrá Valley81 ,82 ,83
The ambient concentration of suspended particles appears to be the main
air pollution problem in the Aburrá Valley84. In June of 2002, the average
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concentrations of TSP were above standards of Decree 02 of 198285 in 3
of the 14 monitoring stations of the Metropolitan area86; and in all cases
they were above the 50% value of the standard. Additionally, the average
concentration of PM10 was close to or above the ambient standard87 in the
two stations which monitored this variable88. A similar situation was observed
during 2003. Data gathered during the first semester of 2003 also detected
O3 concentrations higher than the ambient standards89.
With the data collected by the monitoring stations, the Metropolitan Area is
developing a program to model suspended particles and their sources. This
program has the objective of providing additional elements for the design
and implementation of air pollution control strategies90.
D. Health Effects
The effects of air pollution on health have been studied in Bogotá. However,
those results have not been published. This section summarizes the results
of those studies, which are mainly Masters’ theses from local Universities.
Increases in air concentrations of particulate matter (TSP) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) have positive effects on the number of daily counts of
respiratory hospital admissions (RHA)91. While a 50% increase in the
concentration of TSP augmented the daily RHA by 120%, an 100% increase
in the concentration of NO2 augmented the daily RHA by 12%. The effects
of Ozone on RHA were not detected.
85 100 µg / m3.
86 Itagüí, Universidad de Medellín, Universidad Nacional.
87 65 µg /m3.
88 Guayabal and Corantioquia.
89 87 ppb.
90 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
91 LOZANO, N. (2003). “Air Pollution in Bogotá Colombia: A Concentration Response
Approach”. Masters Thesis. Department of Agricultural and Resource Economic. Uni-
versity of Maryland ant College Park.
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The economic effects of air pollution on the health status of children were
also studied92. A pollution index that includes air concentrations of NO,
NO2, and PM10 was associated with morbidity rates of children under five
years of age. It was found that this index has a positive effect on children’s´
morbidity, and that the effect is larger in children under one year of age.
Statistically significant associations have also been detected between the
concentration of PM10 and mortalities associated with Acute Respiratory
Illnesses (ARI)93. Contingent valuation studies were conducted during 2000
to estimate the economic costs of morbidity from ARI in Bogotá94. It was
found that the willingness to pay to avoid one day of a bad episode caused
by air pollution is US $ 4.3.
According to the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley, the frequency of
respiratory diseases has increased in all of the municipalities of the
Metropolitan Area and the frequency of ARI is “very relevant”95. However,
the author could not find any empirical study that relates ARI and air pollution
in the city and which could be used to support this assertion.
E. Institutional Interventions
1. Bogotá
In some areas of Bogotá and during specific periods of the year, the city
experiences relatively high concentrations of some air pollutants, particularly
of particle matter. The city’s air pollution strategy aims at maintaining lower
levels of some pollutants (NO2 SO2, CO), at preventing the increase of O3
92 CALIXTO, D.C. y DÍAZ, A.V. (1996). “Valoración económica del impacto ambiental
del aire sobre la salud de los habitantes menores de 5 años en Bogotá”. Masters Theses.
Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Administrativas. Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá,
Colombia.
93 URDANETA, S. (1999). “Mortalidad por infecciones respiratorias agudas y contaminación
de aire: una estimación de funciones dosis-respuesta para Bogotá”. Masters Thesis. Facultad
de Economía. Universidad de los Andes. Bogotá, Colombia.
94 MATURANA, J.G. (2000). “Disponibilidad a pagar por daños a la salud de la contaminación
atmosférica”. Master’s Thesis. Facultad de Economía. Universidad de los Andes. Bogotá.
95 Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
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and at decreasing PM10 and TSP96. Its long term target is to maintain air
pollution bellow the maximum levels recommended by the World Health
Organization.
DAMA is responsible for coordinating “The Air Pollution Prevention and
Control Program of Bogotá”97. The air pollution control strategy is based
on a diverse group of complementing actions. This program includes: i) air
monitoring and air quality data collection; ii) the generation of public
awareness through the dissemination of environmental information; iii) training
of key actors within the industrial and transportation sectors; iv) the
promotion of clean fuels; v) the improvement of fuel quality; vi) the
improvement in urban mobility; vii) monitoring and control of fixed and
mobile sources of emission; vii) technology transfer, and ix) institutional
coordination. In most cases, the benefits of each of these actions have not
been systematically evaluated. Between years 2000 and 2002 DAMA
invested US $ 1’921.500 in activities related to air pollution control98.
The Air Pollution Prevention and Control Program of Bogotá requires the
active participation of different public and private agents. A Committee
was established to facilitate coordination at al local level. It operates under
the direction of DAMA, and is integrated by representatives from the Ministry
of the Environment, the city’s departments of health and transportation, the
Universidad de los Andes, TRANSMILENIO, and the National Industry
Association - ANDI. This Committee seeks to coordinate the implementation
of the different components the Program for Air Pollution Prevention and
Control Program99. Since June of 2002, the city of Bogotá also participates
in the Clean Air Strategy of the World Bank100. Through technical and
economic cooperation, this Strategy strengthens the city’s Program for Air
Pollution Prevention and Control.
96 Interview with Mr. Carlos Mario Tamayo. Director of Environmental Quality at DAMA.
December 2003. Bogotá.
97 Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
98 Informe de gestión 2001-2003 (2003). DAMA. Bogotá.
99 Interview with Mr. Carlos Mario Tamayo. Director of Environmental Quality at DAMA.
December 2003. Bogotá.
100Informe de gestión 2001-2003 (2003). Cit.
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a. Data Collection
As indicated, DAMA installed a new air monitoring network with 14 stations in
1997. These stations monitor the ambient concentrations of TSP, PM10, SO2,
CO, Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), O3, and Hydrocarbons (HC). The network also
monitors the following relevant meteorological relevant variables: wind speed
and direction, solar radiation, temperature, and relative humidity. The data
provided by the network is presently used to monitor air quality with respect to
local ambient standards and to observe tendencies. In the future, the information
provided by the network is expected to be used to activate control measures
and to prevent pollutions episodes. It will also be used to provide data and
information for research in areas relevant for urban planning, transportation
systems and impact evaluation, as well as to validate dispersion models101.
Presently, the Engineering Department of the Universidad de los Andes
and the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Laussane are using the data
collected by the network to develop an air model (Cell dispersion model)102.
The data of the air monitoring network of Bogotá has also been used conduct
research projects. Among these, various studies have evaluated the
economic impact of air pollution on human health and on the prices of
urban property103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108. During 2002, after five years of continuous
operations, administrative and technical problems lead to the suspension of
the operations of the network109. The network reassumed operations in
101Auditoria a la Operación y Manejo de la Información de la Red de Monitoreo de la Calidad
de Aire (2002). DAMA-IDEAM. Bogotá.
102Doctorate thesis of Erika Zárate.
103URDANETA, S. (2000). Mortalidad por infecciones respiratorias agudas (ira) y conta-
minación del aire: una estimación de funciones: dosis respuesta para Santa Fe de Bogota.
Facultad de Economía. Universidad de los Andes. Bogotá.
104CARRIAZO, F. (2000). “La contaminación del aire y el precio de la vivienda en Bogotá”.
Master’s Thesis. Facultad de Economía. Universidad de los Andes. Bogotá.
105IBÁÑEZ, A.M. and MCCONNELL, K.E. (2001). Valuing Morbidity: Acute Respiratory
Illness in Bogotá, Colombia. Paper prepared for AERE workshop. Bar Harbor, Maine.
106 LOZANO, N. (2003). Op. cit.
107 MATURANA, J.G. (2000). Op. cit.
108 MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). Op. cit.
109Air Monitoring Network of Bogotá (2002). Cit.
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August of 2003. After an evaluation of the network, its operation was
transferred by DAMA to Instituto de Estudios Ambientales, IDEAM, in
2002110. The annual cost of the monitoring network of Bogotá is of
approximately US$ 200.000111.
b. Education Training and Awareness
DAMA’s environmental education programs are aimed at the general public
and at key actors within the transportation and manufacturing sectors. Those
programs seek to increase awareness regarding air pollution problems and
to promote the adoption of clean production processes and fuels. It also
seeks to encourage the appropriate maintenance of public and private
transportation vehicles.
“The day with no-car” is the main strategy used to raise awareness about
air pollution and the importance of public and alternative means of
transportation. Twice a year, private cars are not allowed to circulate in the
city; only public buses and taxis may be used, and public transportation
and bicycles are encouraged. The impacts of the “day with no- car” on the
levels of air pollution are not conclusive112, 113.
Since 1996, DAMA has conducted public campaigns to promote vehicle
maintenance. The campaign “Be Synchronized with Bogotá” promotes vehicle
maintenance through massive media. As a part of this program, 750 mechanics
have been trained in the maintenance of diesel and gasoline vehicles114.
Additionally, in 1997, the Department of the Environment of Bogotá,
DAMA initiated the ACERCAR program for the transfer of environmentally
sound technology to small and medium industrial enterprises. Between April
110Auditoría a la operación y manejo de la información de la red de monitoreo de la
calidad de aire (2002). Cit.
111Ibid.
112www.dama.gov.co.
113Bogotá, cómo vamos: cambios en la calidad de vida de la ciudad 2000-2002 (2003). Casa
Editorial El Tiempo, Fundación Corona, Cámara de Comercio de Bogotá. Bogotá.
114www.dama.gov.co.
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2002 and April 2004, this program conducted 6000 technical consultations
and 600 detailed environmental evaluations of small and medium industrial
establishments, and organized four international seminars115. As a part of
this program subsidies are granted to private firms for the environmental
re-conversion of their industrial plants. The impact of this program on air
pollution reduction has not been evaluated. In 2003, this program was
extended to the transportation sector with the objective of providing
information and technology related to the maintenance of vehicles and cleaner
fuels. Between April and December of 2003 this program assisted 55% of
the total transportation firms with training and technology transfer. The impact
of this program on pollution control has not been evaluated.
Since November of 1998, DAMA publishes air quality data in its web
page116. This information includes a complete description of the air monitoring
network, the daily, weekly, and monthly reports, and all the reports published
between 1998 and 2002. Information related to the day with no car is also
published. This web page also includes a form in which complaints can be
presented by the public to DAMA.
The level of awareness about air pollution in Bogotá can be assessed by
the number of complaints to DAMA. Twenty three hundred (2300)
complaints were sent to DAMA between January and October of 2003,
of which 35 % were related to air pollution117. Between 2002 and 2003,
the number of air related complaints grew by 4%. Information from earlier
years is not available.
Additionally, the awareness of the general population with respect to air pollution
problems has been evidenced in hedonic studies. These studies have concluded
that air pollution problems negatively affect the prices of homes in Bogotá. This
tendency reflects social awareness with relation to pollution problems. A study
conducted using a hedonic equation determined that a one percent increase in
the air concentration of TSP lowered the prices of houses by 0.126%118. In this
115Ibid.
116www.dama.gov.co; the number of visitors to this page has been 765.000 during the last
six years of existence.
117Informe de gestión 2001-2003 (2003). Cit.
118CARRIAZO, F. (2000). Op. cit.
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study the average price of the houses was US $ 26.300 of 1998. That is to say
that a one percent increase in the concentration of TSP would lower the price
of a the average house by US $79,38.
c. Public Transportation
By the early nineties congestion problems in Bogotá were critical119.
Between 1992 and 1998 the average speed in the city went from 20 k/h to
10 K/h120; the average age for public transportation vehicles was 20 years
and the average trip in public transportation lasted 1 hour and 10 minutes121.
Transmilenio, a massive system for public transportation, was inaugurated
in December 2000122. Today, about 15% of the seven million daily trips in
public transportation vehicles in Bogotá are made in Transmilenio. Between
2000 and 2001, the average travel time lowered by 15% and more that
50% of that change can be attributable to the Transmilenio System123.
Transmilenio uses high capacity buses124 which run at an average speed of
27 K/h along 56 Kilometers of exclusive corridors. For each new bus that
is added to the Transmilenio system, seven old buses are destroyed. Half
of a 20% local surtax on gasoline, mostly paid by private vehicles, is used
for the construction and expansion of the Transmilenio system; the other
half is directed towards the maintenance and improvement of the geometry
and design of public roads. DAMA, as an environmental authority, did not
play a role in the decision making process that led to the implementation of
the Transmilenio System.
119ARDILA, A. (1998). “El problema del transporte en Bogotá: diagnóstico y perspectivas
para el metro”. Debates de coyuntura económica. El metro en Bogotá, ¿cómo financiarlo?
Fedesarrollo, Fonade, no. 47. Bogotá.
120Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
121CHAPARRO, I. (2002). Evaluación del impacto socioeconómico del transporte urbano
en la ciudad de Bogotá: el caso del sistema de transporte masivo, Transmilenio. CEPAL.
Santiago de Chile.
122www.transmilenio.gov.co.
123Bogotá, cómo vamos: cambios en la calidad de vida de la ciudad 2000-2002 (2003). Op. cit.
124160 passengers per bus.
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A recent research study concluded that although the average monthly ambient
concentrations of PM10 have increased since 1996, the Transmilenio massive
transportation system has contributed to lowering emissions of those
particles125. The same study found that this massive transportation system
has also contributed to significantly lowering the ambient concentrations of
ozone126. Between 2.000 and 2001, average concentrations of SO2, NO2
and PM10 declined by 44%, 7% and 25% respectively, as reported by the
air monitoring stations located near one of Transmilenio’s lines127.
As an integral part of the Transmilenio System, 259 K of bicycle paths
have been constructed in Bogotá. The administration of the city estimates
that 4% of the total number of trips is made by bicycle128. The administration
of Bogotá included a series of educational projects that seek to promote
the bicycle as an alternative means of transportation in its Environmental
Plan for the 2001-2009 period 129.
d. Traffic Restrictions
In Bogotá 20% of the private vehicles are immobilized form 7:00 to 9:00
a.m. and from 5:00 to 7:00 pm., according to their plate numbers on a daily
basis. This has increased the average speed of public and private
transportation by 20% and 24% respectively, and has increased the use of
public means of transportation130. Additionally, vehicle for public
transportation, including taxis, is also immobilized once a week, with the
exception of the buses of the Transmilenio system. An evaluation of the
impact of this measure shows a 21% reduction on Ozone concentrations
during peak traffic hours131.
125MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). Op. cit.
126 The concentrations of PM10 and Ozone have been lowered by 18% and 56% respectively
near the Transmilenio lines.
127Carrera 13 and calle 39.
128 Bogotá, cómo vamos: cambios en la calidad de vida de la ciudad 2000-2002 (2003). Op. cit.
129 Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
130www.transitobogota.gov.co.
131MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). Op. cit.
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e. Regulations
Control actions in Bogotá are based on the enforcement of regulations
presented in table three.
Table 3. Regulations for Air Pollution Control Approved by DAMA.
Regulation Objective Comments
These standards include CO
(%) and HC (ppm) for
gasoline vehicles; they are
stricter for newer vehicles.
For diesel vehicles the only
standard is opacity (%)
which also tends to be
stricter for newer vehicles.
Establishes local standards These standards can not be
for mobile sources of compared with others
Resolution 556 of emissions and establishes such as the Euro standards
2003 by DAMA fines and sanctions for the which are presented in units
violation of those standards. of weigh of emitted
pollutant per distance
traveled (Ex. gm/km).
Random controls are made
on the streets with the
coordination of the police
and the transportation
departments.
Resolution 391 of 2001 Establishes local ambient These standards are stricter
by DAMA standards (see table 2). than the national standards
(Decree 2 of 1982).
Resolution 1208 of 200 3 Establishes local standards Monitoring and control
by DAMA for fixed sources of emission. programs of industrial plants
conducted by DAMA are
based on the standards of
this regulation.
Resolutions (Resoluciones) 556 of 2003 and 1208 of 2003 define
local emission standards for mobile and fixed sources of pollution,
respectively. Both regulations set standards that are stricter than those
of the national regulations approved since 1982132. The approval of
132Decree 02 of 1982.
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those standards was based largely on the review of international literature
and regulations133.
Resolution 556 presented in Table 3 defines the procedures for the
enforcement of air emission standards by mobile sources. As previously
mentioned, the annual total cost of the yearly emission’s revision is US $
5´536.800 and environmental benefits could not be found; although they
were evaluated.
Finally, it should also be mentioned that between 2002 and March of 2004,
23 legal actions were pressed in relation to air pollution problems in Bogo-
tá134. Eighteen of them were related to fixed sources of air pollution. In half of
those cases, the judges ordered the polluters to stop emissions. In 28% of
the cases, and in accordance with the article 116 of the Political Constitution
of 1991, the judges ordered the use of alternative dispute resolution
mechanisms135. Through those voluntary processes and with the mediation of
a conciliator, agreements are sought between peoples in conflict136.
f. Control Actions
The Air Pollution Prevention and Control Program of Bogotá includes actions
to control emissions generated by mobile sources. The city government
requires all private and public vehicles to submit to a yearly emissions’
evaluation. These evaluations are conducted by authorized service
stations137, which issue a certificate indicating compliance to standards
defined by DAMA. The cost of the evaluation is US $ 9. Between October
of 2002 and October of 2003, 615.200 vehicles obtained their emission’s
133Interviews with Mr. Carlos Mario Tamayo Director of Environmental Quality at DAMA;
and Mr. Carlos Herrera Environmental Director of ANDI. March 2004. Bogotá.
134Interview with Mr. Orlando Sepúlveda from the Legal Unit of DAMA.
135The Alternative Dispute Resolution mechanisms were recently regulated by Law 640 of
2001.
136RODAS, J. C. (2001). “La conciliación y los conflictos ambientales”. Justicia ambiental.
Universidad Externado de Colombia; Instituto de Estudios del Ministerio Público; CAR.
Bogotá.
137Presently there are 312 authorized service stations in Bogotá.
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certificate (about 40% of the vehicles were not tested)138. Therefore the
total annual cost of the yearly evaluation was US $ 5’536. 800. The traffic
police routinely require those certificates and conduct random emission
inspections on the streets of Bogotá. A US $67 fine139 is applied to those
vehicles which do not possess the certificates or do not meet the standards.
During the first semester of 2003, 45.320 inspections were conducted.
There was a 60% compliance of vehicles, and a 5% increase with respect
to the previous year. The remaining 40% did not comply and the degree of
non-compliance was not registered. The effects of these controls on air
quality were evaluated but could not be proven140.
In addition, on a yearly basis, each industrial plant makes a self-evaluation
and a declaration of its emissions. Every year, DAMA randomly selects a
group 70 of the 2.372 fixed sources of emissions to verify the content of
those declarations. In 2003, these industries presented a 63% compliance
rate with air emission standards defined in national regulations (Decree 02 of
1982) and of 41% for the stricter local standards (Resolución 391 of 2001).
According to a survey conducted in year 2001141, 64% of the air pollution
control measures taken by fixed sources in Bogotá, included preventive
changes in the production processes; and 36% adopted end of the pipe
solutions. Processes modifications included changes in energy sources. Fifty
two percent of the industries that adopted preventive measures for air
pollution control also increased their profits. However, the relation between
abatement and increase in profits was not investigated.
2. Medellín
The Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley acts simultaneously as a planning
and development agency, as well as an environmental authority. The
138Informe de gestión ambiental en el Distrito Capital. Enero 1998–diciembre 2000. (2000-
2001). Cit.
139This fine is doubled is it is not paid within three days.
140MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). Op. cit.
141CRUZ, G.; URIBE, E.; CORONADO, H. y GARCÍA, J. La gestión ambiental y la
competitividad de la industria (2002). Informe final de consultoría. CEDE. Universidad de
los Andes. Bogotá.
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Environmental Unit of this institution is responsible for implementing the air
pollution control program of the Aburrá River watershed. As in the case of
Bogotá, the air pollution strategy of this region includes a series of
complementary actions142. They include air monitoring, research, land use
planning, and promotion of clean production technologies, environmental
education, massive transportation systems, and traffic management. In most
cases, the benefits of each of these actions have not been systematically
evaluated. As in the case of Bogotá, the implementation of the air pollution
control program of the Aburrá River watershed requires the participation
of different public and private institutions. Among them are the Metro of
Medellín, the departments of planning and transportation of Medellín and
of the municipalities of the Aburrá Valley, and the private associations of
industries and of the transportation sectors143. Unlike the case of Bogotá
where the effects of some of the government’s air pollution control actions
have been evaluated, this has not been the case in the Aburrá Valley.
Information related to the air pollution control investments of the
Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley is not included in the public reports
that this organization presents to the general public.
a. Education Training and Awareness
The environmental education programs of the Metropolitan Area are aimed
at the general public and at key actors within the transportation and
manufacturing sectors. A massive environmental education program known
as “if air was lacking” (“si le falta el aire”) seeks to prevent pollution
caused by mobile sources144. The content and the impact of this
environmental education program have not been evaluated. Since 1996,
the Metropolitan Area has developed a program to promote cleaner
production systems by the industrial sector145. This program is similar to
the ACERCAR program of Bogotá. As a part of this program, different
142Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
143HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
144 Ibid.
145 www.metropol.gov.co.
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institutions and associations of the private sector146 and of the government147
created the “Clean Production Committee”148. This Committee has the
objective of facilitating the industrial sector of the region access to cleaner
production technologies. Information relative to the results and impact of
the activities to promote the adoption clean production systems by the
manufacturing sector is not available.
The Metropolitan Area has published “environmental guidelines” for the ma-
nagement of air pollution in the industrial sector149. In addition, three “Clean
Production Agreements” have been signed between the Metropolitan Area,
acting as the environmental authority of the region, and the private sector150.
In those agreements the government and the private sector coordinate the
design of environmental regulations, administrative processes, economic in-
centives, environmental evaluation and monitoring methods151.
Although the Environmental Unit of the Metropolitan Area includes infor-
mation in its web page relative to air pollution control and to air quality, the
information provided is less detailed and updated than that provided by
DAMA.
Evidently, the Metropolitan Area has undertaken a series of environ-
mental education programs and programs to facilitate the access to
cleaner technologies. However, their results, impact and benefits have
not been evaluated.
146The local chapter of the National Association of Industries (ANDI), the local chapter of
the Chamber of Commerce, and Fedemetal.
147The Metropolitan Area, the Universidad de Medellín, the Universidad de Antioquía, the
Gerencia Ambiental de la Gobernación de Antioquia, the Autonomous Regional Corpora-
tion of Antioquia and and Cornare.
148HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
149 Ibid.
150 www.metropol.gov.co.
151 ESTERLING, A. (2003). Evaluación y perspectivas de los convenios de concertación
para una producción más limpia en Colombia. Informe de Consultoría. Ministerio del
Medio Ambiente.
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b. Alternative Transportation Systems
The Metro system of Medellín was inaugurated in December of 1995. This
massive transportation system has become the pivotal center for the
development of public transportation in this city152. The Metro of Medellín
transports about 300 thousand passengers per day at an average speed of
35 kilometers per hour153. This corresponds to about 9% of the total
transportation demands of the city154. Presently there is an ambitious program
for the extension of bicycle paths155.
c. Control Actions
The air pollution control program of the Aburrá River watershed includes
actions to legally control emissions generated by mobile sources. The
Metropolitan Area requires all private and public vehicles to submit to a
yearly emissions’ evaluation156. These evaluations are conducted by 20
authorized service stations which issue a certificate indicating compliance
to standards. During 2002, 150.000 vehicles (this corresponds to about
38.78% of the total number of vehicles) obtained their emission’s
certificate. During the first semester of 2003 there was a 6.23% increase
in the number of certificates granted with respect to the same period of
the previous year. The cost of the evaluation is US $ 9 per vehicle. The
total cost paid in 2002 was US 1’350.000. Twenty two percent of the
collected amounts are transferred to the Environmental Unit of the
Metropolitan Area. Ninety percent of the inspected vehicles had gasoline
engines; the rest were powered by diesel157. There is no information
152Perfil del estado de los recursos naturales y del medio ambiente en Colombia (2001).
Instituto de Hidrología Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales, IDEAM. Bogotá.
153Política para mejorar el servicio de transporte público urbano de pasajeros (2002). Cit.
154Área metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá - Corantioquia. (2003). Actualización del Plan
Estratégico Ambiental Metropolitano, PEAM 2003-2012. Medellín.
155Proyecto metrópoli 2002-2020 (2002). Plan Integral de Desarrollo Metropolitano del
Valle de Aburrá. Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá. Medellín.
156HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
157Informe de gestión ambiental en el Distrito Capital. Enero 1998-diciembre 2000 (2000-
2001). Cit.
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available as to failure rate of these control actions. The traffic police
routinely requires those certificates and conducts random emission
inspections. Fines equivalent to 10 minimum legal daily wages are applied
to those who do not possess the certificate and of 30 minimum legal daily
wages to those whose vehicles do not meet the standards158.
Additionally, the environmental Unit of the Metropolitan Area conducts
random inspection visits to industries159. One hundred sixty inspections were
conducted during 2003; this corresponds to about 30% of the total number
of industrial establishments.? In addition, 53 inspection visits were conducted
in response to public demands and complaints. Information relative to the
degree of non compliance for these random inspection visits is not available.
Unlike the case of Bogotá, the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley has
not approved specific regulations for air pollution control. Consequently,
national regulation and standards are applied.
d. Cleaner Fuels
The quality and the availability of fuels have not been the same in Bogotá
and in Medellín. The national government160 promoted the use of natural
gas in Bogotá earlier than in Medellín161. Likewise, the diesel fuel produced
by the national oil agency162 for Bogotá has lower sulfur contents. Local
governments do not participate in the design of national energy policies or
in the decisions related to the availability and quality of fuels. The National
Government determines which fuels and of what quality are available in
each city. As a result, one of the main elements of local air pollution control
strategies (fuel types and quality) lies beyond the control of local authorities.
158HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
159Ibid.
160The Ministry of Mines and the Department of National Planning (DNP).
161La cadena del gas natural en Colombia: 2001-2002 (2003). Unidad de Planeación Minero
Energética; Ministerio de Minas y Energía. Bogotá.
162Ecopetrol.
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Since the early nineties, the national government has adopted policies aimed
at promoting the massive use of natural gas for the industry, the transportation
and the domestic sectors. In 1991, the national government adopted the
National Program for the Promotion of Natural Gas Consumption163. Since
then, the promotion of this fuel has been a priority for succeeding national
administrations164 ,165. The national policies for the promotion of gas
consumption include: i) acceleration of gas reserve exploitation; ii) the
construction of transportation and distribution infrastructure; iii) strengthening
of institutional and regulatory framework, and iv) the generation of positive
incentives for the participation of the private sector in the production and
commercialization of gas. The production of Natural Gas grew by a factor
of 6.5 between 1990 and 2000,166 and consumption grew by 10% between
2002 and 2003. This growth was mainly attributed to the increased demand
by the transport sector167.
Between 1997 and 2001 there was an increase of 161% in the number of
cars running on Natural Gas in Colombia168. Nearly 7400 cars were
converted to Natural Gas during that period. Between 2002 and 2003, the
consumption of vehicular natural gas grew from 1’060.102 to 1216.561
BTU and from 135.609 to 327.914 BTU in Bogotá and in Medellín
respectively169. It is interesting to note that while the demand in Medellín is
about one third of that of Bogotá, the number of cars in this city triples that
of Medellín. Additionally, it is evident that the growth rate in the consumption
of vehicular natural gas is much higher in Medellín. It is estimated that by
163Programa para la masificación del consumo de gas (1991). Documento CONPES DNP-
2571-UINF-DIREN. Departamento Nacional de Planeación. Bogotá.
164El sector del gas en Colombia (2000). Documento sectorial. Departamento Nacional de
Planeación.
165Balance y estrategias a seguir para impulsar el Plan de Masificación de Gas (2000).
Documento CONPES 3190. Departamento Nacional de Planeación. Bogotá.
166La cadena del gas natural en Colombia 2000-2001 (2003). UPME. Ministerio de Minas
y Energía. Bogotá.
167El Tiempo, Newspaper, April 1 2004.
168Análisis de conveniencia del uso del gas natural comprimido vehicular en Colombia (2002). Cit.
169www.mme.gov.co.
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2010 a total of 80.000 vehicles for public transportation, mainly taxis (85%),
will use natural gas in Colombia170.
Between 1999 y 2002, as a part of the “Program for Air Pollution Prevention
and Control”, DAMA and ECOPETROL171 promoted the re-conversion
of 4890 public vehicles from gasoline to natural gas172. Through its ACER-
CAR program, DAMA advertised the environmental and economic benefits
of re-conversion to Natural Gas among taxi owners and provided them
with technical and financial information173. The average monthly savings for
a taxi that converts form gasoline to natural gas in Colombia are about US
$100174 . There are no subsidies involved. These savings are mainly
associated with differences in fuel prices. The reconverted cars are allowed
to carry advertisements regarding their use of Natural Gas. To investigate
the economic and technical viability of using natural gas in the Transmilenio
massive transportation system, a prototype bus is under evaluation175.
Additionally, DAMA developed a guide for the environmental management
of the service stations that sell Natural Gas. The contents and the technical
standards of this guide were developed and negotiated with the regulated
sector and became enforceable regulation176. Evidently, environmental and
energy authorities have been interested in the conversion of vehicles from
gasoline and diesel to natural gas. However, the potential environmental
effects of their policies and programs have not been evaluated.
The use of cleaner fuels by the industrial sector has also grown in Bogotá.
While the participation of coal dropped from 41% to 7.5% between 1992
and 1998, the participation of Natural Gas grew from 2% to 7 %177.
170La cadena del gas natural en Colombia 2000-2001 (2003). Cit.
171Colombian Oil Company (Empresa Colombina de Petróleos).
172Análisis de conveniencia del uso del gas natural comprimido vehicular en Colombia (2002).
Cit.
173Informe de gestión ambiental en el Distrito Capital. Enero 1998-diciembre 2000 (2000-
2001). Cit.
174Análisis de conveniencia del uso del gas natural comprimido vehicular en Colombia (2002).
Cit.
175Interview with Mr. Ricardo Moncada Advisor of Transmilenio S.A. April 2004. Bogotá.
176Resolución 19/02.
177Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
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The environmental benefits of the program for the promotion of natural gas
have not been evaluated.
Since 1991, leaded gasoline is not produced in Colombia178. With the
exception of Sulfur, the quality of diesel and gasoline in Colombia is similar
to that of industrialized countries179. The content of Sulfur in the Diesel fuel
produced for Bogotá by ECOPETROL180 is 1/3 of that for the rest of the
Country181. The decision to lower the Sulfur content of the diesel produced
for Bogotá resulted from a comparison with international standards182. This
decision was taken by ECOPETROL in coordination with DAMA in year
2000183. Five hundred industrial plants and commercial establishments and
most of the vehicles for public transportation, including Transmilenio, are
operating with this cleaner fuel in Bogotá.
II. Application of the WDR 2003
In this section, the case of air pollution management in Bogotá and Medellín
is discussed and analyzed following the framework of the WDR 2003. The
following aspects are addressed:
1. How, and to what extent, society became aware of the air pollution
problems of these two cities.
2. The mechanisms that generated the decision to undertake air pollution
control strategies.
3. The mechanisms that were in place to balance legitimate, competing
social interest.
178ONURSAL, B. and GAUTAM (1997). Op. cit.
179Ibid.
180Colombian Oil Company (Empresa Colombina de Petróleos).
1811000 ppm for Bogotá versus 3.000 ppm for the rest of the country. By 2005 the content
of Sulfur in Diesel will be 500 ppm and in gasoline 300 ppm.
182Interview with Mr. Manuel Felipe Olivera, Director of DAMA from 1998 to 2001.
March 2004. Bogotá.
183Interviews with Mr. Alberto Carderón President of Ecopetrol from 1998 to 2002 and with
Mr. Manuel Felipe Olivera, Director of DAMA from 1998 to 2001; March and July of
2004. Bogotá.
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4. The means by which the adopted solutions were executed, and the
sustainable (long term) nature of the commitment.
A.How Society Became Aware of the Air Pollution Problems
Although ambient air standards were only approved in 1982, air quality
monitoring in Bogotá and Medellín has existed since 1967184 when the
Pan-American Health Organization installed a network of stations in those
cities, which operated until 1974. The interest of this international agency in
air pollution control played a more important role than the local interest185.
At the time information relative to the health effects of air pollution in Bogo-
tá and in Medellín were not known. In both cases those networks detected
the presence of high levels of TSP.
During the next nine years, air quality information was not gathered. After a
long period in which air quality data was unavailable, the national government
approved its first air emission standards in 1982186. Those standards were
approved in order to develop a regulatory agenda defined by the Code of
Natural Resources in 1974 and by the Sanitary Code in 1979187. Those
two codes indicated that the national government should approve specific
regulations and standards to prevent air pollution. More than a response to
social demands, the standards set by Decree 02 of 1982 were the result of
the development of a regulatory agenda that had been determined by previous
regulations designed and approved by the government without any form of
public participation.
Between 1990 and 1991 the Japanese Cooperation agency, JICA, financed
and operated five air monitoring stations in Bogotá. These stations also
detected high environmental levels of particulate matter. However, the
information provided by the monitoring stations that operated until 1991
184SÁNCHEZ, E. y HERRERA, C. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
185Interview with Mr. Julio Carrisoza, Inderena’s Director from 1973 to 1978. July 2004.
Bogotá.
186Decree 02 of 1982.
187Interview with Mr. Julio Carrisoza. Cit.
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was not systematically analyzed or widely published188. Therefore the level
of public information regarding air quality in Bogotá was limited.
The Environmental Department of Bogotá, DAMA, initiated environmental
control actions in 1995 and installed a new air monitoring network in
1997. The data gathered by the network is published by DAMA in
internet189. This web page also publishes information related to the
development of the “The Air Pollution Prevention and Control Program
of Bogotá”190. This includes information related to: i) the operation of air
monitoring stations; ii) technical information related to air pollution con-
trol; iii) the evaluation of control strategies such as “the day with no car”,
the Transmilenio transportation system and the technology transfer
programs to the industrial and transportation sectors. Seminars and
workshops on air pollution issues are also announced on this web page
and the presentations of those seminars are made available. This web
page has had more than 755.000 visitors since 1998. In the case of the
Aburrá Valley this type of detailed public information is not as readily
available. The web page191 publishes general information related to con-
trol actions of fixed and mobile sources of air pollution; air quality data is
presented in very general terms.
Additionally, mass media has also contributed to the dissemination of
information related to air pollution. Between April of 2003 and April of
2004, DAMA of Bogotá made 10 press releases directed towards the
mass media on issues directly related to air pollution192.
DAMA and the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley develop various
projects of environmental education and training in areas relevant to air
188 Sistema de información ambiental de Colombia: conceptos, definiciones e instrumentos de
la información ambiental de Colombia (2002). Cit.
189 www.dama.gov.co.
190 Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
191 www.metropol.gov.co. This web page had more than 27.000 visitors from February 5 to
May 25 2004. However, other non environmental issues related to the planning and to the
development of the Aburrá Valley are also consulted (for example transportation, public
services, security, etc.).
192www.dama.gov.co.
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pollution control193 ,194 The ACERCAR project in Bogotá mentioned in
section I.E.1, and the clean production program of the Abuurá Valley
mentioned in section I.E.2 target key actors of the industrial sectors and
seek to increase their awareness with respect to pollution problems and
economically efficient alternatives to address them. The ACERCAR
program in Bogotá also targets the transportation sector.
Additionally, DAMA and the Metropolitan Area develop a series of
environmental education and technology transfer projects aimed at controlling
air pollution. The availability of information facilitates public participation and
interventions related to air pollution control. In fact, 35 % of the twenty three
hundred (2300) complaints sent to DAMA between January and October of
2003 were related to air pollution195, and the number of air related complaints
grew by 4% between 2002 and 2003. Although the health effects of pollutants
are not yet broadly shared or understood in the city of Bogotá, 65% of the
people relate respiratory illnesses with air pollution and the willingness to pay
to avoid one day of a bad episode caused by air pollution is US $ 4.3196.
Information related to public awareness in relation to air pollution in the Aburrá
Valley is not as available. However, it is known that 4.5% of the 2.948
complaints received by the Environmental Unit of the Metropolitan Area during
the first trimester of 2003 were related to air pollution197. Evidently the
participation of air pollution related complains is much larger in Bogotá than
in the Aburrá Valley (35% versus 4.5%).
B. The Mechanisms that Generated the Decision to
Undertake Air Pollution Control Strategies
To monitor and control the standards approved by Decree 02 of 1982, the
Health Department of Bogotá installed a network of 12 air monitoring
stations in 1983. The same year the Department of Health of Medellín
installed seven stations. Bogotá’s network gathered data until 1989. In the
193Plan de gestión ambiental de Bogotá (2002). Cit.
194HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
195Informe de gestión 2001-2003 (2003). Cit.
196MATURANA, J.G. (2000). Op. cit.
197www.metropol.gov.co.
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case of Medellín, there were four stations which operated until 1992, albeit
in deficient operating conditions198. In both cases high levels of TSP were
detected in some of the monitoring stations.
The results form the monitoring stations installed in 1983 contributed to
support the national government’s decision to create institutions specialized
in environmental problems of large urban settlements. The creation of new
institutions specifically responsible for urban environmental management in
cities over one million was considered a positive step for the implementation
of long term air pollution control strategies. Under the previous institutional
setting, the health authorities were responsible not only for air pollution
control, but also for the administration of the public health system. The
crucial importance and the urgencies associated with the administration of
that system demanded most of the attention and resources of those
institutions. Under those circumstances, the financial and institutional
resources dedicated to air pollution were limited199.
Although information on air quality has been gathered, and information related
to the impact of air pollution on human health has increased, the national
standards of Decree 2 of 1982 are still in place. The Ministry of the
Environment has not examined the efficiency, efficacy and effectiveness of
that regulation in light of new conditions and available information. The
largely decentralized nature of the air pollution strategies in the cities of
Colombia could explain the low priority assigned by the national government
to air emission standards200. Additionally, the fact that urban environmental
authorities have the capacity of making those standards stricter, based on
their particular circumstances, could also contribute to explain this situation.
The city of Bogotá is the only case in Colombia where stricter local air
ambient standards have been approved and where standards for additional
pollutants such as PM10 have been issued. As indicated in section I.E.1, in
2001, Bogotá moved to stricter local standards and included PM10. This
198GÓMEZ, G.; MONTEJO, S. y SAAVEDRA, E. (1994). Op. cit.
199SÁNCHEZ, E. y VARGAS, C. (1994). “Estructura institucional y financiera del control
de la contaminación y oferta analítica”. En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Op. cit.
200 This is the opinion of the author.
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could be explained by the relative political independence of the government
of Bogotá at that time201. A recent study among representatives of the in-
dustrial sector202 found that DAMA is among the environmental authorities
that exercises the strictest control activities in Colombia203.
In the case of Bogotá, as indicated in section 2.4.1, in addition to social
demands, the data originating form the air monitoring station network helped
the administration to determine that its air pollution control strategy should
aim principally at maintaining low levels of some pollutants (NO2 SO2,
CO), at preventing the increase O3 and at decreasing PM10 and TSP204.
Using the data form the monitoring network, the administration and the
Engineering Department of the Universidad de los Andes are presently working
on the development of an air dispersion model for the city of Bogotá. This
model has the objective of increasing the value of the network as a source of
information for the design, evaluation and adjustment of environmental policies205.
On the other hand, using data from the monitoring stations, the Environmental
Unit of the Aburrá Valley is developing a program for modeling suspended
particles and its sources. As in the case of Bogotá, this program has the objective
of providing additional elements for the design, evaluation and adjustment of air
pollution control strategies206.
Not all of the actions that are presently considered to be integral components
of the air pollution control programs of Bogotá and Medellín were designed
and implemented with the objective of lowering air pollution. Some of them
had the objective of controlling the traffic congestion problems. These are
the cases of Transmilenio and of the daily restrictions in the use of private
201Ibid.
202CRUZ, G.; URIBE, E.; CORONADO, H. y GARCÍA, J. La gestión ambiental y la com-
petitividad de la industria (2002). Cotado.
203The Regional Corporation of Cundinamarca CAR is the only environmental authority that
develops less control activities than the Environmental Unit of the Metropolitan Area.
204Interview with Mr. Carlos Mario Tamayo. Director of Environmental Quality at DAMA.
Bogotá. December 2003.
205Ibid.
206Elementos para el diagnóstico ambiental de los espacios natural y transformado en el
Valle de Aburrá (2002). Cit.
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and public vehicles in Bogotá. This is also the case of the Metro system of
Medellín. Those strategies created to improve mobility have contributed to
lower air pollution in Bogotá207. Their effect in Medellín has not been
evaluated. Similarly, the construction of bicycle paths and the promotion of
bicycle use, with the objective of improving the quality and public enjoyment
of public areas, are now considered to be part of the air pollution control
programs of Bogotá and Medellín.
Originally, the promotion of fuels such as natural gas in transportation and
industry had the objective augmenting the social benefits that could be derived
from the efficient utilization of that resource208. Environmental considerations
were not taken into account. As the potential contribution of cleaner fuels to
the improvement of air quality became better known, environmental reasons
became part of the promotion strategies of natural gas209.
C. The Mechanisms to Balance Legitimate, Competing
Social Interests
Various of the components of the Air Pollution Prevention and Control
Program of Bogotá and in the Aburrá Valley are not within the realm of
environmental authorities and are not seen by the general public as
environmental initiatives. They are in fact sector policies which could have
positive externalities on air quality. That is the case of the components of
the air pollution control programs that are related to the transportation and
to the energy sectors. This is also the case of the surtax on gasoline which
is a fiscal instrument to finance the improvement of public roads and of
public transportation and the construction of bicycle paths. Although the
development of those components has not been exempt of conflicts of
interests210, environmental issues are not part of them.
The writing and enforcement of environmental regulation has been a source
of tension between DAMA and the representatives of manufacturing
207MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). Op. cit.
208Programa para la masificación del consumo de gas (1991). Cit.
209Balance y estrategias a seguir para impulsar el Plan de Masificación de Gas (2000). Cit.
210Bogotá, cómo vamos: cambios en la calidad de vida de la ciudad 2000-2002 (2003). Cit.
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industry211. As indicated in section I.E.1, local emissions standards were
developed in 2003212 for the control of fix and mobile sources of air
pollution. Both regulations set standards that are stricter than those of the
national regulations approved since 1982. The approval of those standards
was based primarily on the review of international literature and regulations.
The regulated sector represented by ANDI213 was consulted during the
elaboration of the regulation that defined emission standards for fixed
sources214. However, after the regulation was approved it has manifested
that Resolution 1208 of 2003 “…is partially a copy of European standards
which are not economically feasible for the conditions of Bogotá”215 and
that “…the need and levels of those standards have not been technically
supported, therefore their economic efficiency is questionable.”. Other
stakeholders such as communities or NGOs have not been called to
participate in the discussions related to the design and approval of air
pollution regulations in Bogotá. Their absence indicates that there is room
to increase the transparency of the process of regulation design and approval.
The air regulations enforced by the Environmental Unit of the Aburrá Valley
are those approved by the national government for the entire country. Specific
ambient and emission standards have not been approved. Therefore, there
have not been major debates between the local governments and the
regulated sector in relation to air pollution standards. The fact that despite
the monitoring and health information gathered, the national ambient
standards approved in 1982 remain unchanged could also indicate the uneven
participation of the different stakeholders in the regulatory process.
As in the case of Bogotá, every car in the Aburrá Valley has to obtain an
emissions certificate. Although, as indicated before, the total costs paid for
211Interviews with Mr. Carlos Mario Tamayo Director of Environmental Quality at DAMA;
and Mr. Carlos Herrera Environmental Director of ANDI. March 2004. Bogotá. The
author of this study was DAMA’s Director when Resolución 160 of 1997 was approved.
212Resolución 1208 of 2003 for fixed sources; and Resolution 556 of 2003 for mobile sources.
213The National Association of Industries.
214Interviews with Mr. Arturo Sanchez Director of Environmental Quality of DAMA be-
tween 1994 and 1997 and with Mr. Manuel Felipe Olivera Director of DAMA from 1998
to 2002. Bogotá. December 2003.
215Interview with Mr. Carlos Herrera. Environmental Director of ANDI. March 2004. Bogotá.
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the certificate of emissions are relatively high216 and its environmental benefits
have not been proven217, there has not been a social reaction against these
control programs. This could be related to the fact that these control
programs are popular as they make people feel that they are making their
contribution to improve environmental quality. Additionally, there is a
relatively high level of awareness in relation to air pollution problems which,
as indicated previously, is reflected in the willingness to pay for environmental
quality218 ,219.
The judiciary system has played a role in environmental control since the
late eighties and early nineties. In fact, many of the early legal actions were
used to solve air pollution problems. A Citizens’ Rights Action (Acción de
Tutela) was first used to demand the protection of the environmental rights
of communities affected by air pollution problems in 1991220; the same
year that this type of legal action was created by the Constitution. The
frequency in the use of Citizens’ Rights Action related to the protection of
the rights to health and to life grew from 6.100 in 1995 to 20.500 in 1999221.
Although not all of those cases are specifically related to air pollution222,
the growth in the use of this action is significant. Another type of legal action
that has been used to control air pollution problems is the Popular Action.
This type of action can be used to protect collective environmental rights223,
and can be presented by an individual on behalf of an undetermined group
of people. Statistics as to the use of this type of action are not available.
216US$ 5.536.800 in Bogotá and in 1.350.000 in the Aburrá Valley, during 2002.
217MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). Op. cit.
218CARRIAZO, F. (2000). Op. cit.
219IBÁÑEZ, A.M. and McCONNELL, K.E. (2001). Op. cit.
220SÁNCHEZ, E. y MEDINA, G. (1994). En: E. Sánchez y E. Uribe. Contaminación
industrial en Colombia (1994). DNP. PNUD. Bogotá.
221Estadísticas sobre la acción de tutela (1999). Corte Constitucional. Consejo Superior de
la Judicatura. Bogotá.
222There is no information as to the total number of legal actions specifically related to air
pollution.
223Collective Environmental Rights include the right to a clean environment and the right to
participate in the decisions that may affect it (Article 79 of the Constitution of 1991).
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The Citizens’ Rights Action is the most frequently used legal action to
demand the solution of air pollution problems224. In Bogotá the Citizens’
Rights Action has been used, almost exclusively, against fixed sources of
pollution. They are mostly used by low income local communities that
live in the vicinity of industries such as brick factories and tanneries and
by small commercial establishments such as dry cleaners, carpenter’s
shops and restaurants.
Legal actions have been used to a lesser extent to demand the solution of
the air pollution problems caused by mobile sources. In those cases Popu-
lar Actions have been used. In fact, a series of five popular actions were
presented between 2001 and 2003 by independent citizens against the
Transmilenio system in Bogotá225. Those citizens argued that this massive
transportation system was causing air pollution problems. However, to this
date, the decisions of the judicial system have been favorable to the
Trasmilenio system.
In Bogotá, in all the cases where judges have ordered pollution control
actions, those actions have been implemented226. In 28% of the cases the
judges have ordered the use of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms
in which DAMA has played a role in overseeing the compliance of those
voluntary agreements.
Although specific information for the case of the Aburrá Valley is not
available, the role of the judicial system should not be different.
On the other hand, the office of the General Attorney (Procuraduría Ge-
neral de la Nación) has a Delegate Office for Environmental Matters
(Procuraduría Delegada para Asuntos Ambientales). The National
media frequently publishes the findings or opinions of this office. Recently227,
224Interview with Mr. Orlando Sepúlveda from the Lagal Unit of DAMA. Bogotá. Decem-
ber. 2003.
225Ibid.
226Ibid.
227In Febmrury 14, 2004.
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the national newspaper, EL TIEMPO, published a report by the Attorney
General228 which indicated that the air quality data provided by the
environmental authority of Bogotá, DAMA was not entirely reliable.
According to the Attorney General’s Office, the monitoring stations were
not located in adequate sites and the stations were deficiently maintained
and operated. A similar evaluation is presently conducted in Medellín by
the General Attorney’s office.
D. The Means by Which the Adopted Solutions are Executed
DAMA and the Environmental Unit of the Metropolitan Area are responsible
for coordinating the implementation of the various components that contribute
to air pollution control. In both cases a committee was established to facilitate
coordination. In the case of Bogotá, DAMA heads the committee which is
integrated by representatives from the Ministry of the Environment, the
city’s departments of health and transportation, the Universidad de los
Andes, Transmilenio, and the National Industry Association - ANDI. In
the case of Medellín, the committee is integrated by the Metro of Medellín,
the departments of planning and transportation of Medellín and of the other
nine municipalities of the Aburrá Valley, and by the private associations of
industries and of the transportation sector229.
The air monitoring stations of Bogotá and of the Aburrá Valley are presently
used to compare air quality with respect to local ambient standards and to
observe tendencies. However, in neither of those cases the local
environmental authorities have adopted a systematic process for the
evaluation of the environmental benefits of the different air pollution control
and prevention actions. Most of the quantitative evaluations of pollution
prevention and control actions in Bogotá have resulted from graduate
228Informe de control de gestión con fines preventivos sobre la operación y diseño de la red
de monitoreo de calidad del aire de Bogotá (2004). Procuraduría General de la Nación.
Bogotá.
229HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
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Eduardo Uribe Botero
research projects in different Universities230 ,231 ,232 ,233 ,234 ,235. The results of
these studies have not influenced decisions related to the design of air pollution
policies in the Bogotá236. Similarly, the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá
Valley has not undertaken evaluations of the benefits and costs of its air
pollution prevention and control actions. It is expected that, in the future,
the information provided by the networks in Bogotá and in the Aburrá
Valley will be used to generate control measures to prevent pollutions
episodes, to adjust environmental policy and regulation and to design urban
and transportation strategies.
Besides coordinating the implementation of the various components that
contribute to the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Program of Bogotá,
DAMA and the Metropolitan Area are also responsible for the enforcement
of air regulations. As indicated in section I.E.1, a recent study237 found that
DAMA is among the environmental authorities which develops more control
activities238 in Colombia, while the Environmental Unit of the Metropolitan
area is one of the agencies which has developed the fewest control activities.
This difference in environmental control could be related to the fact that while
DAMA acts exclusively as an environmental authority, the Metropolitan Area
of the Aburrá Valley is mainly responsible for planning and coordinating the
development of the municipalities of the Aburrá Valley. Its functions as
environmental control agency were defined only until 1994239; that is 14 years
after its creation. The environmental control actions of this institution are
delegated to an Environmental Unit. Clearly, environmental control is not the
230MÉNDEZ, M. (2003). Op. cit.
231CALIXTO, D.C. y DÍAZ, A.V. (1996). Op. cit.
232URDANETA, S. (1999). Op. cit.
233CARRIAZO, F. (2000). Op. cit.
234IBÁÑEZ, A.M. and McCONNELL, K.E. (2001). Op. cit.
235LOZANO, N. (2003). Op. cit.
236 Interview with Mr. Carlos Mario Tamayo. Director of Environmental Quality at DAMA.
December 2003. Bogotá.
237URIBE, E.; CRUZ, G.; CORONADO, H. y GARCÍA, J. (2001). Op. cit.
238Number of fines and letters by DAMA to the industrial plant.
239www.metropol.gov.co.
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main mandate of the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley. In fact,
environmental control could eventually be in contradiction with the main
mandates of this institution, which include the planning and promotion of
activities such as transportation systems, public infrastructure and housing
projects240. Thus, it is not surprising that stricter environmental control is not
undertaken and that stricter air regulations have not been approved.
On the other hand, the representatives of the industrial sector in jurisdiction
of the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley consider that their
environmental authority is institutionally unstable and inflexible. The level of
control exerted by an environmental authority is important as it affects the
environmental investments by the industry. As a matter of fact, in Bogotá
the investments of industrial plants in pollution control are positively affected
by the control activities of DAMA. That is, those investments grow as the
control activities of DAMA increase.
Several components of the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Program
of Bogotá and the cities and municipalities of the Aburrá Valley are not
related to the enforcement of environmental standards. That is the case of
central components such as the extended use of natural gas or the expansion
of the massive transportation systems. In these cases, where the private
sector is largely involved and where there are not public subsidies, long
term sustainability would be largely dependent on financial viability.
III. Lessons and Recommendations
The following are the main lessons and recommendations from this case study:
• National air quality standards were approved in 1982. The benefits,
efficiency and effectiveness of those standards have not been rigorously
evaluated. Since 1982, much information has been collected and research
has provided a better understanding of the health effects of air pollutants.
There is a need to evaluate, update and complement the standards
approved in 1982, in light of this new information.
240HOYOS, O. (2002). Op. cit.
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Eduardo Uribe Botero
• Local emission standards were developed in 2003 for the control of
fixed and mobile sources of air pollution in Bogotá. The regulated sec-
tor, represented by ANDI241.was consulted during the elaboration of
the regulations that defined emission standards for fixed sources242. Other
stakeholders such as communities or NGOs were not called to
participate. Their absence indicates that there is room to increase the
transparency of the process of regulatory design. Measures should be
taken to control the capture of the environmental agencies by the regulated
sectors, and to ensure a balanced participation of all interested
stakeholders during the regulatory processes.
• A series of air pollution prevention and control actions have been
implemented In Bogotá and Medellín. These include environmental
education, technology transfer, traffic restrictions, control activities, the
promotion of alternative fuels and massive transportation systems,
amongst others. However, governmental efforts to evaluate the impact
of those actions on air quality have been very limited. Under those
circumstances, the environmental agencies of Bogotá and Medellín lack
objective basis to determine the priority level of different actions and to
promote them among the different social actors and stakeholders. The
continuation, the scope and the level of priority assigned to those
prevention and control actions should be based on the results of their
quantitative evaluation.
• Not all of the actions that integrate the strategies for air pollution
prevention and control in Bogotá and Medellín are implemented by the
environmental agencies of those cities. In fact, projects and actions
implemented by sectors such as transportation and energy could have
important benefits in terms of urban air quality. This is the case of the
massive transportation systems of Bogotá and Medellín, the restrictions
in the use of private vehicles, the surtaxes on gasoline, and the promotion
of bicycle use and of fuels such as natural gas. In this respect,
241The National Association of Industries.
242Interviews with Mr. Arturo Sanchez Director of Environmental Quality of DAMA be-
tween 1994 and 1997 and with Mr. Manuel Felipe Olivera Director of DAMA from 1998
to 2002. Bogotá. December 2003.
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environmental authorities should be aware of the opportunities of those
actions, should evaluate their environmental benefits and, if appropriate,
should contribute to their promotion.
• Since its creation in 1980, the Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley
has acted as a regional planner and promoter of development projects.
This includes transportation, sanitation, infrastructure and housing
projects. Fifteen years later this institution was restructured to undertake
additional functions as environmental authority. There are potential
conflicts of interest between its traditional responsibilities and the new
environmental functions that this institution has been assigned. Under
these circumstances, the transparency in the decision making processes
related to the design an implementation of environmental control actions
might be jeopardized. In the case of DAMA of Bogotá, such conflicts
might also be present as this institution depends on the local administration
which also promotes and develop such projects. In this last case,
however, the fact that DAMA does not directly promote infrastructure
projects with potential effects for air pollution lowers the risk of this
type of conflict. Legal reforms to minimize the risk of conflicts of interests
within environmental institutions should be proposed. Those reforms
should also assign responsibilities to other agencies which can contribute
to the prevention and control of air pollution (ECOPETROL, Ministry
of Energy, etc.).
• The effects of air pollution on health have been studied in Bogotá. Negative
effects of particulate mater (TSP) and NO2 on respiratory illnesses have
been reported in this city. However, most of those studies correspond to
students’ Masters thesis. Empirical evidence of the effects of air pollution
on human health is not available for the city of Medellín. There is a need
for additional studies that investigate the effects of air pollution on human
health in Bogotá and in Medellín. Those studies should be part of a wide
and long term governmental program on air pollution prevention and con-
trol. Their results should be taken into consideration for the design of air
quality objectives in these two cities. Drawing from international studies
would be a useful start in providing information on health impacts, and
hence prioritizing which pollutants should be tackled first.
• The environmental authorities of Bogotá and Medellín have made
important efforts to increase social awareness about air pollution
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problems as described earlier. In Bogotá, for example, most people
can relate respiratory illnesses with air pollution243 . The mass media has
also contributed to the dissemination of information related to air pollution.
Actions to increase awareness about air pollution should be maintained;
especially if citizens are expected to participate actively in the
development of air pollution control and prevention actions, such as
vehicle emissions’ evaluation and traffic control measures.
• In addition to environmental authorities, other instruments have
contributed to air pollution control and to increase public awareness.
Those are the cases of the judiciary system, the mass media and the
General Attorney’s Office. The use of legal actions by NGO’s, citizens
and communities has increased significantly during the last decade.
Environmental agencies should actively promote the use of these legal
actions. Additionally, the Office of the General Attorney and the mass
media have contributed to increase awareness about air pollution and
to supervise the performance of environmental agencies.
• Although Colombia initiated air monitoring since 1967 and there is a
relatively long tradition of air pollution control (since 1982), information
related to air pollution management in Colombia is scarce, disperse and,
in many cases, of poor quality. The continuity of institutional efforts has
been interrupted and valuable information has been lost. Additional efforts
should be made to build an institutional memory regarding pollution con-
trol programs.
243 MATURANA, J.G. (2000). Op. cit.
